Example 1: Causation

• To prove causation in this case, you must show:
  • Temporal order: students are athletes before coming to college, so it would be impossible for their grades in college to affect something which they already do.
  • Association: you must use statistical measures to prove that there is a relationship (positive in this case) between the two.
  • Eliminate other alternatives: you must look for other things that could effect both of these variables. Overall worth ethic, for example, would cause people to play sports as well as do better in the classroom.
• You must avoid common logic problems such as:
  • Teleology: by saying "some people are just more gifted"
  • Tautology: by saying "playing sports means that people are smart"
  • Ecological fallacy: by using data from the college level, saying "colleges which have a higher sports participation have higher grades"